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How can the existence of God be proven? The fundamental question of proving the existence of Almighty God as the Creator and Sustainer of the universe is one of the most critical beliefs in Islam. It serves as the bedrock upon which other beliefs, such as monotheism, prophethood, and Imamate, are built. Therefore, it is essential to note that the proof of God's existence must rely on rational arguments, as the Quran and hadith cannot be used as primary evidence due to the risk of circular reasoning. Initially, it must be understood that all arguments employed to prove the existence of God are grounded in three fundamental principles that must first be established: 1. The principle of avoiding circular reasoning 2. The principle of avoiding infinite regress 3. The principle of causality. Circular reasoning It is a logical fallacy where the conclusion of an argument is already assumed in the premise. It's a flawed form of reasoning because it doesn't provide any new evidence or support for the claim. Here's a simple example: Premise: Ghosts exist because people have seen them. Conclusion: People have seen ghosts, so they must exist. As you can see, the conclusion is simply a restatement of the premise, providing no additional proof. Infinite Regress Infinite regress is a logical problem that occurs when a process or argument can be traced back indefinitely, leading to an endless loop. It often arises in situations where a concept or event is defined or explained in terms of itself, creating a circular dependency. infinite regress in causality means that every event has a cause and the cause itself has a cause leading to an infinite chain of causes. one of the ways of addressing the challenge of infinite regress, especially in theology, is to break the chain by adding an independent cause which is Allah (s.w.t) The principle of causality In Islamic Kalam, this principle is known as "Asl al-ʿilliyya", which is a fundamental concept. It posits that every event has a cause or reason behind it. This principle is closely tied to the Islamic belief in God as the ultimate cause and creator of all things.

What are the types of Tawhid (Unity of God)? Many Muslim theologians, mystics, and philosophers, relying on the Quran and the hadiths of the Prophet Muhammad and the Shia Imams, have outlined various levels and degrees of Tawhid. For a better understanding, this classification is summarized as follows: 1. Unity of Essence: This is the first level of Tawhid, meaning that God is unique and without equal or substitute. God says in the Quran, " Nor is there to Him any equivalent."[1] In another sense, the unity of essence means that God is not multiple or dualistic and is free from composition. 2. Unity of Attributes: This means that God's essence is one with His attributes and that these attributes are not added to His essence. So, when we say "God is knowing, "we mean that knowledge is the very essence of the Lord and is not added to Him as a part. The same applies to other divine attributes such as power and life. God says in the Quran, " Glory to thy Lord, the Lord of Honor and Power! (He is free) from what they ascribe (to Him)."[2] The word "ascribe" refers to God being exalted from any attribute that contradicts unity and Tawhid, especially since the verse begins with glorification and refers to God's majesty. In a hadith from Imam as-Sadiq (a.s), knowledge, hearing, and sight are mentioned as being the very essence of God, and it is stated that God was all-hearing and all-seeing before there was anything to hear or see.[3] 3. Unity of Actions: Just as God is unique in His essence; He is also unique in His actions. The necessity of belief in the unity of actions is that everything that happens in this world is an act of God, and the source of the actions of all beings in the universe is considered to be the sacred essence of the Lord, as one of the well-known supplications among Muslims indicates: "There is no power and no strength except with God."[4] The unity of actions is manifested in the following: o Unity in creation, meaning that there is only one independent creator in the universe, and everyone else is dependent on His permission and will for their creation. However, this divine will does not contradict the free will of human beings.[5] The Noble Quran also signifies the concept on many occasions: “…Say, "Allāh is the Creator of all things, and He is the One, the Prevailing.”[6] o Unity of Lordship means that God alone is the independent manager of the universe; consequently, “all creatures are dependent on God in all aspects of their existence, and the dependencies they have on one another ultimately lead to the dependency of all of them on the Creator. It is He who manages some creations through others, provides sustenance to those who seek it through the sustenance He creates, and guides beings with consciousness through internal means (such as reason and other faculties of perception) and external means (such as prophets and heavenly books), and sets laws and regulations for those who are obligated, determining their duties and responsibilities.”[7] Lordship and creation are interconnected, and it makes no sense that the creator is different from the manager of creation. In the Holy Quran, it is stated: “Verily your Lord is Allah, who created the heavens and the earth in six days, and is firmly established on the throne (of authority), regulating and governing all things...”[8] “[All] praise is [due] to Allāh, Lord of the worlds.”[9] o Unity in sovereignty, meaning that God alone has absolute, undisputed sovereignty over all beings in the universe. Allah the exalted says in his holy book, “Do you not know that to Allāh belongs the dominion of the heavens and the earth and [that] you have not besides Allāh any protector or any helper”[10] 4. Unity of Divinity: Derived from the word "ilah," a commonly used word in Islamic literature, “which means "worthy of worship" or "object of worship." Similar to ‘book’, in the sense of something that is written and has the quality of being written”[11]. The Islamic slogan of Tawhid, "La ilaha illa Allah" (There is no god but God), which is a part of the testimonies (shahadatayn), also refers to the exclusivity of divinity for God. Along with unity in divinity, there is talk of unity in worship and obedience, meaning that worship and obedience are exclusive to God. These two are in fact necessary consequences of unity in divinity. 5. Unity in Legislation: This means that only God has the independent right to legislate and judge, as stated in the Quran, "…The command rests with none but Allah: He declares the truth, and He is the best of judges."[12] Unity in legislation can also be considered a case of “unity in lordship”, as legislation is befitting of the manager of the universe. The classification provided in this text aligns with the majority opinion among Islamic theologians. Nonetheless, this doesn't preclude the existence of other classification systems or the possibility of a more exhaustive analysis. For the sake of brevity, the topics have been summarized. Consequently, to gain a more nuanced comprehension of the hierarchy and varieties of Tawhid, it is advisable to consult the elaborate explanations furnished for each subcategory. [1] Al-Ikhlas/4, Sahih International translation. [2] As-Saffat/180, YusufAli translation. [3] Sh, Kulayni, al-Kafi, vol 1, p. 107 [4] The word “hawqala” itself is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran, but the phrase 'la quwwata illa billah' (there is no power except with Allah) is found in verse 39 of Surah al-Kahf. This supplication is one of the well-known invocations among Muslims. Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Babawayh al-Qummi (Shaykh as-Saduq) has narrated that the Noble Messenger of Islam recited this supplication in the qunut of the witr prayer. (Man La Yahduruhu al-Faqih, Vol. 1, p. 487). [5] Aliasghar Rezvani, Shialogy, and answering the doubts, vol. 1, p. 129 [6] Ar-Ra’d/16, Sahih International translation. [7] Ayt. Misbaah Yazdi, Amoozesh Aqayed, p. 78 [8] Yunus/3, Yusufali translation [9] Al-Fatiha/2, Sahih International translation [10] Al-Baqara/107 Sahih International translation [11] Ayt. Misbaah Yazdi, Amoozesh Aqayed, p. 79 [12] Al-An’am/57

What are their meanings in language and terminology? In language, Tawhid originates from the root "wahd," meaning oneness or singularity. Hence, it refers to something that is absolute or without parts.[1] Based on this, Tawhid is defined in terminology as: believing in one God.[2] Martyr Motahhari also states that Tawhid means belief in God and the oneness of the Divine.[3] And Ayatollah Subhani, in explaining this oneness, has stated that Tawhid is believing in the oneness of God in terms of His essence, actions, and worship.[4] Based on this, believing in the oneness of God is described through various levels of Tawhid.[5] Tawhid, as the most fundamental belief of Muslims, is mentioned throughout the Noble Quran. God Almighty has explicitly or implicitly addressed the issue of Tawhid in about 130 verses of the Quran, and even an entire sura is named after it. The first verse of Surah "at-Tawhid" clearly states the position of God Almighty: "Say, 'He is Allah, the One and Only.'"[6] Imam Sadiq (peace be upon him) in a narration has stated that the reason for the revelation of this surah was a question asked by the Jews about the concise description of God Almighty.[7] Regarding this same verse, in a narration from Imam Ali (peace be upon him), it was asked about the meaning of this oneness, and he replied: When it is said that God is one, it can be understood in four ways. First, that God is a number in contrast to two, which is impossible for God. Second, that God is one of His kind, which is also meaningless for God. So, there remain two other ways: one is His being unique, which is correct for God. The other is that God is indivisible from within, in other words, God is simple.[8] The opposite of Tawhid is Shirk, which means associating partners with something and the existence of one being in two things, such as animality being common to both humans and horses.[9] Based on this, Shirk means believing that someone or something shares the attributes and position of God, while nothing is like God.[10] The Noble Quran presents an argument against Shirk, saying, "If there had been within the heavens and earth gods besides Allah, both would have been ruined."[11] And according to the narrations, the meaning of Shirk is associating partners with God absolutely.[12] Various levels can be considered for this, including lordship, which the Quran refers to, saying that if there were two managers in this world, corruption and destruction would engulf the world. Shirk is considered one of the major sins, and in whatever form it occurs, it leads to the believer going to Hell. In a narration from Imam Jawad (peace be upon him) quoting his father and grandfather, Shirk is described as "the greatest of major sins."[13] [1] "Al-Mufradāt fī Gharīb al-Qurʾān" (The Singularities in the Strange Words of the Quran), Dar al-Qalam, by Al-Rāghib al-Isfahānī, Volume 1, Page 857, https://B2n.ir/e29366 [2] "Ma'arif al-Qur'an" (The Meanings of the Quran), by Mohammad Taqi Misbah Yazdi, Volume 1, Page 58, https://B2n.ir/b46994 [3] Book Title: "Tawhid" (Oneness), by Murtaza Mutahhari, Volume 1, Page 13, https://B2n.ir/u04694 [4] "Tawhid and Shirk in the Noble Quran," by Sheikh Jafar Subhani, Volume 1, Page 5, https://B2n.ir/k56940 [5] "Tawhid According to the Ahl al-Bayt," by Alaa al-Hussun, Volume 1, Page 9, https://B2n.ir/p26874 [6] Surah al-Ikhlas, Verse 1, Translation by Ayatollah Makarem Shirazi [7] “Tafsir Riwaei Ahlulbayt, Volume 18, Page 450 [8] "Tawhid," by Sheikh al-Saduq, Volume 1, Page 83, https://B2n.ir/q96148 [9] "Al-Mufradāt fī Gharīb al-Qurʾān" (The Singularities in the Strange Words of the Quran), Dar al-Qalam, by Al-Rāghib al-Isfahānī, Volume 1, Page 451, https://B2n.ir/r08145 [10] "Bihar al-Anwar," by Allama Majlisi, Volume 10, Page 184, https://B2n.ir/n49953 [11] Surah Al-Anbiya, Verse 22 [12] "Tafsir al-Ayyashi," by Muhammad bin Masud al-Ayyashi, Volume 1, Page 255, https://B2n.ir/k89533 [13] Al-Kulayni, Al-Kafi, Volume 2, Page 285, https://B2n.ir/u63025